Identify the core message of the research - the ideas you most wish to communicate. Mentally review their relationships with each other, and with secondardy ideas. Identify less important ideas for possible demotion or deletion.

Correctly organize ideas within the Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion sections. Ensure core ideas have priority. Demote less important ideas and ruthlessly delete those which distract from or are not strictly related to the core ideas.

Ensure a logical paragraph structure within each section. Each parapgraph should contain a logically related series of ideas, based around a single topic. Move any unrelated ideas to a different paragraph (or delete them).

Key sentence 1: “Here, to clarify X, we investigated Y using Z.”

In the 1st paragraph of the Introduction, describe the current state of knowledge in your study’s field. Highlight the knowledge that is now missing or incorrect that your study investigated. Describe what benefits would accrue if the missing or wrong knowledge were known.

Key sentence 1: “A better understanding of this question would allow X and facilitate Y.”

Key sentence 2: “To our knowledge, however, no study has yet investigated this question”

In the 2nd paragraph of the Introduction, build on the problem identified in the 1st. Identify the particular aspect of the problem your study specifically addresses. Highlight again what specific knowledge is missing, or incorrect, and describe what benefits would accrue if the missing or wrong knowledge were known. Repeat this process in 3rd and 4th paragraphs if your study has more than one main specific point.

Goal: Paragraphs 1 and 2 should bring the reader to an intellectual climax. At the end of paragraph 2, the reader should be thinking, ‘Yes, that is a big problem - how can we ever find a solution!’

Goal: The resolution of the climax is provided in the Hero sentence.

The Discussion should begin with a three- to five-sentence paragraph which summarizes the main finding of the study, one or two secondary findings, and the significance or implications of the main finding.

Key sentence 1: "In this study, we found P... We also found Q and R."

Key sentence 2: "These findings indicate..."

The second paragraph of the Discussion should provide additional detail on the first, and expand information on the main finding. Subsequent paragraphs should expand out to include other findings. Each paragraph should include a discussion on related findings from other papers, and the implications of your new findings. Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence, use a coherent pattern of organization, and link ideas together using suitable connecting words: 'Furthermore', 'However', 'In addition" etc.

Goal 1: The reader should be able to clearly see how each of the new findings relates to previous knowledge.

Goal 2: The reader should feel that the hypothesis, method and results of the study have advanced their knowledge of the field

Most papers need a paragraph on the limitations of the study. The typical pattern is: ‘Several limitations of the study warrant mention. First, X. Second, Y. Finally, Z.’ etc. For each limitation, you should try to place it in a suitable context, such as mitigate it: ‘Although Z was a limitation, it was not so important because of P and Q.’ Or limit it: 'Although Z was a limitation, the recent availability of new technology should provide a more conclusive answer.' Generally, you should be open about limitations - reviewers tend to be forgiving of limitations if openly expressed, but are severe if they discover limitations which you have kept hidden. Limitations are commonly written in a single paragraph, but some papers require as many as seven or more paragraphs to fully describe and explain the study's limitations.

Goal 1: No study is perfect. By openly and fully describing your limitations, readers will gain trust in your paper, and in you as a researcher.

In the same way that the meter is the primary unit of distance*, the sentence is the primary unit of thought. So one sentence should contain a single independent idea. You should write your sentences so that, at each full stop, the reader can mentally pause, digest the sentence's idea, and prepare for the next sentence's idea. Applied consistently through ought your paper, your text will be smooth and intellectually satisfying to read.

*the kilometer, centimeter etc are secondary units

Goal: Do not under- or overload your sentences, or combine unrelated ideas.

The grammatical structure of a sentence should reflect the relative importance of the ideas it expresses. An important point should be in an important part of the sentence; a less important point should be in a less important part.

Goal: Grammatical sameness should reflect logical sameness

This is the most important rule of readability. Your reader expects you to place the main point of your sentence right at the end of the sentence, just before the period. Placing your main point in this position sends the reader a strong signal: 'This is the main point of this sentence, and this is what I want you to focus on.

Place information the reader already knows before new information. This gives the reader a context in which to understand the new information.

Wrong: 'A causes B. C results from B'

Right: 'A causes B. B produces C.'

The paragraph should show a clear relationship between the main idea and supporting statements. Begin with a topic sentence which includes the paragraph's subject and its major idea. Then support, develop and explain the topic sentence with a series of sentences that logically follow from it. When necessary, end with a suitable summary or concluding sentence.

The topic sentence has two purposes:

• gives a context in which to place the following information.
• gives an idea of the nature of the paragraph - comparison and contrast, cause and effect, etc.

The paragraph should show a clear pattern according to the logic of the ideas expressed. If the paragraph describes a list of related items, these should be expressed in a clear list format, with grammatically similar expression and connectors such as 'First,... Second,... Finally,....' etc.

Common patterns include:

• Comparison and contrast

• Cause and effect

• Time sequence

• List